By : Reham Salah
Reham Salah, a versatile development practitioner with a strong academic background in Migration and Refugee Studies, is currently pursuing an academic diploma in the same field. Experienced in Monitoring and Evaluation (MEAL), she is dedicated to leveraging MEAL methodologies to drive positive change in the field of humanitarian assistance.
Introduction
Migration has become a global phenomenon that impacts societies, economies, and individuals in various ways with debates on its impact on recipient countries: whether regarding the influx of immigrants or of refugees. Some may say it enhances the country’s overall diversity and has flourishing impacts on the economy, while others may say it has negative impacts on the economy, ruining the country’s homogenous nationalistic communities. In the context of Egypt, gender plays a significant role in shaping migration patterns and experiences. This blog post aims to delve into the complex interplay between gender, migration, and the related concepts of gender scripts, performativity, and intersectionality in Egypt.
Societal Gender Scripts Expectations
In Egyptian society, gender roles are deeply rooted in cultural and religious norms, which influence individuals' behaviors and expectations. Traditional gender scripts prescribe specific roles and responsibilities for men and women, creating a distinct division of labor and power dynamics. Historically, these gender scripts have assigned men as breadwinners and women as caretakers, reinforcing patriarchal structures.
However, it is important to note that these gender scripts are not fixed or universal. Biological differences between males and females persist and remain, but gender is a something entirely different; it is a societal construct that evolves and changes depending on many factors. It evolves and varies across different regions, religions, social classes, and generations. While urban areas in Egypt may have more flexible gender scripts, rural communities often adhere more strictly to traditional norms.
Migration and Gender Scripts
Migration disrupts traditional gender scripts as it often entails separation from one's family and community. When men migrate, they may face pressure to fulfill their expected role as providers, sending remittances, money or goods that migrants send to families and friends in origin countries, back home to support their networks. This can lead to feelings of stress and the burden of living up to societal expectations. Men may also experience challenges in renegotiating their roles and identities upon return, as they may be seen as "foreign" or "less masculine" due to their time spent abroad.
On the other hand, women who migrate may challenge traditional gender roles by seeking employment opportunities abroad, fostering their economic independence, and assuming non-traditional roles. The decision to migrate may be driven by various factors, including economic motivations, the pursuit of education, or family reunification. Female migrants often face the dual challenge of navigating a new culture and labor market while negotiating their gendered identities. For example, female workers from rural areas who migrate to urban centers may face exploitation, low wages, and limited job security due to their gender, class, and migration status. They may be vulnerable to abuse and discrimination, highlighting the need for protective policies and support systems.
Performativity:
The Construction of Gender Identity
Gender performativity, a concept introduced by Judith Butler, suggests that gender is not an inherent characteristic but rather a social construct. It emphasizes the notion that individuals "perform" their gender according to societal expectations. In the context of migration, gender performativity becomes particularly relevant as it shapes how individuals navigate their new environment and negotiate their gender identity.
Migration and Gender Performativity
Migration can provide individuals with new spaces to explore and redefine their gender identity. When migrating, individuals may encounter different cultural norms and expectations that challenge or expand their understanding of gender. This can lead to the adoption of new gender performances or the reinforcement of existing ones.
For instance, LGBTQ+ individuals who migrate may navigate complex intersections of gender and sexual identity in their home country. Migration can offer them opportunities to explore their gender and sexual expression, seeking acceptance and freedom from persecution in more inclusive societies. Cases like this include the Egyptian Sarah Hegazi who waved the LGBTQ+ rainbow in one of the concerts held in Egypt by a Band called Mashrou’ Leila, whose lead singer is gay. Sarah fled the country as a result of persecution faced after waving the flag and due to absence of a legal umbrella that can provide queer community with safety. Egypt does not criminalize being gay, but rather attacks whoever announces it under acts of “public debauchery”. However, despite the opportunities that can be offered to the queer community through migration, some of them might be considered forced migration and in some cases, like Sarah’s, can be self-exile. This self-exile might accumulate to psychological burdens of depression and homesickness that reaches committing suicide, like Sarah, whose last words were. "To the world: you were cruel to a great extent, but I forgive."
Moreover, women who migrate may find themselves in societies with more liberal gender norms, allowing them to express themselves more freely. They may have access to education, employment opportunities, and social networks that enable them to challenge traditional gender roles. However, they may also face cultural clashes and discrimination, as their behavior and choices may be perceived as deviating from societal expectations. In Egypt, the coin flips with the two cases; in the urban communities, women are more capable of raising their voices and becoming empowered.
Photo Credits: Le Guardian
For example, the gap between the male and female work force in urban and rural areas is an example of this. In rural areas, females’ participation in the workforce was 21% to 81% compared to their counterparts out of the total rural workforce. On the other hand, in the urban communities, the gap is less, though the gap still exists,; with 26% females compared to 79% in males in the workforce. This narrative is underpinned with social and cultural norms that reflect on real cases that use the performativity narratives to survive, like the Egyptian Hajja Sisa Jaber, who dressed in Upper Egypt’s Egyptian men’s attire for 40 years in order to be able to work in a village different than hers after her husband passed away. She needed to work to find a decent source of income for her and her kids. As Brigden illustrates, this reflects how a women may tend to escape patriarchy by reenacting males’ social roles to survive harassment and societal discrimination.
Gender, Migration, and Refugees in Egypt:
Performativity and Intersectionality
Intersectionality recognizes that individuals possess multiple social identities, such as gender, race, class, and religion, that intersect and interact to shape their experiences and opportunities. In the context of gender and migration in Egypt, intersectionality highlights the complex ways in which gender interacts with other social dimensions, influencing migration patterns and outcomes. Egypt has been a significant destination and transit country for refugees and asylum seekers, particularly from neighboring countries affected by conflict and instability. The experiences of refugee women and girls in Egypt provide compelling examples of how performativity and intersectionality intersect with gender and migration.
Photo Credits: UNHCR, Pedro Costa
1- Refugee Women and Gender-Based Violence:
Refugee women and girls often face increased risks of gender-based violence, including sexual exploitation, domestic violence, and harassment. These experiences are shaped by the performativity of gender, as they may be targeted based on societal expectations of vulnerability and power dynamics. Intersectionality further influences their experiences, as refugee women from marginalized ethnic or religious backgrounds may face multiple forms of discrimination and exclusion, compounding their vulnerabilities. Efforts are being made by local and international organizations to provide gender-sensitive support services, including safe shelters, counseling, and legal aid to address the specific needs of refugee women and survivors of gender-based violence.
2- Education and Empowerment:
Access to education is crucial for refugee girls and women to develop skills, build resilience, and challenge traditional gender roles. Their pursuit of education can challenge gender performativity by expanding their opportunities and challenging societal expectations. Intersectionality plays a role as well, as refugee girls and women from marginalized backgrounds may face additional barriers to accessing education due to intersecting forms of discrimination. Various initiatives, including non-governmental organizations and community-based programs, are working to enhance access to quality education for refugee girls and promote empowerment through vocational training and life skills development.
3- Economic Opportunities and Livelihoods:
Refugee women often face significant barriers to accessing formal employment and income-generating opportunities. The performativity of gender influences their access to economic opportunities, as societal expectations may limit their participation in certain sectors or roles. Intersectionality further shapes their economic experiences, as refugee women who also belong to marginalized social or ethnic groups may face compounded barriers to economic empowerment. Efforts are underway to support refugee women in Egypt in accessing livelihood opportunities, including through skills training, entrepreneurship programs, and microfinance initiatives. These programs aim to enhance self-reliance and economic empowerment.
Egypt's Response and International Support:
Performativity and Intersectionality in Policy and Programs
The Egyptian government, along with international organizations and civil society, has taken steps to address the gender-specific challenges faced by refugee women in Egypt. These efforts recognize the influence of performativity and intersectionality on the experiences of refugee women and aim to provide inclusive support.
1- Legal Framework and Protection:
Egypt has made efforts to align its legal framework with international human rights standards, acknowledging the importance of recognizing and protecting the diversity of gender identities and experiences. Intersectionality is considered in the legal framework by recognizing the intersecting forms of discrimination that refugee women may face and providing legal protections against multiple forms of discrimination.
2- International Support and Cooperation:
International organizations such as UN Women, UNHCR, and various non-governmental organizations are providing technical support, funding, and expertise to strengthen Egypt's efforts in addressing gender-specific challenges faced by refugees. Intersectionality is considered in international support by recognizing the unique challenges faced by refugee women from marginalized backgrounds and tailoring interventions to address their specific needs.
Conclusion
Efforts to address gender-specific challenges faced by refugees in Egypt recognize the influence of performativity and intersectionality. Through legal frameworks, capacity building, and international support, steps are being taken to protect the rights of refugee women, enhance service provision, and promote empowerment. These initiatives aim to create a more inclusive and supportive environment that acknowledges the diverse experiences and needs of refugee women and girls.
Understanding the dynamics of gender, performativity, and intersectionality within the context of migration and refugees is crucial for developing effective policies and programs. By recognizing the unique challenges faced by individuals and addressing the intersecting forms of discrimination they encounter, different parties can work towards creating a more equitable and inclusive society for all, regardless of gender or immigrant status.
Author’s Bio:
Reham Salah, a versatile development practitioner with a strong academic background in Migration and Refugee Studies, is currently pursuing an academic diploma in the same field. Experienced in Monitoring and Evaluation (MEAL), she is dedicated to leveraging MEAL methodologies to drive positive change in the field of humanitarian assistance.
References
- Abdelrazek-Alsiefy, A. (2022). Mapping gendered spaces and women’s rights in the modern Egyptian public sphere. SN Social Sciences, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43545-022-00582-7
- Brigden, N. K. (2017). Gender mobility: Survival plays and performing Central American migration in Passage. Mobilities, 13(1), 111–125. https://doi.org/10.1080/17450101.2017.1292056
- Bouchoucha, I. (2023, November 14). “Gender relations” as a factor in determining who migrates and why: The case of Tunisia. Middle East Institute. https://www.mei.edu/publications/gender-relations-factor-determining-who-migrates-and-why-case-tunisia
- Kingsley, P. (2015, March 22). Egyptian woman who has lived as man for 40 years voted “best mum.” The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/mar/22/egyptian-woman-award-lived-as-man
- El Warraky, E. (2022, December 4). The challenges facing Egypt’s female migrant workers. The Washington Institute. https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/challenges-facing-egypts-female-migrant-workers#:~:text=Migrant%20workers%20continue%20to%20lack,a%20stop%20to%20the%20abuses
- Hendy, R. (2015), “Women’s Participation in the Egyptian Labor Market”, In R. Assaad & C. Krafft (Eds.), The Egyptian Labor Market in an Era of Revolution (pp. 147–161). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press
- Salih, S. (2007) On Judith Butler and Performativity. Research Gate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255015941_On_Judith_Butler_and_Performativity/citations
- Youness, R. (2022, September 28). For Sarah Hegazy: In rage, in grief, in exhaustion. Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/06/16/sarah-hegazy-rage-grief-exhaustion
- UNHCR, (2022, November) Egypt Gender-Based Violence. https://reliefweb.int/report/egypt/unhcr-egypt-gender-based-violence-gbv-november-2022
- UNHCR, (2022, November) Egypt: Education Programme. https://reliefweb.int/report/egypt/unhcr-egypt-education-programme-november-2022#:~:text=Egypt's%20predominantly%20young%20refugee%20population,asylum%2Dseekers%20in%20public%20schools.
- UNHCR. (n.d.). Livelihood & Economic Inclusion. UNHCR Egypt. https://www.unhcr.org/eg/what-we-do/main-activities/livelihood-economic-inclusion
